The Qing Dynasty, also known as the Great Qing, ruled China from 1636 to 1912. It was the last imperial dynasty, preceding the Republic of China. The dynasty expanded China's territory and population, becoming the largest empire in world history by 1790. Despite periods of prosperity, the Qing Dynasty faced internal revolts, economic challenges, and foreign invasions, ultimately leading to its downfall in the Xinhai Revolution.
Nurhaci proclaimed himself Khan of the Great Jin in 1616, consolidating his power and laying the groundwork for the future Qing dynasty.
Nurhaci, the leader of the Manchu people, conquered Ming China's northeastern Liaoning province, which was a crucial step towards the eventual establishment of the Qing dynasty in 1644.
Nurhaci, the Later Jin ruler, laid the foundation for the emergence of the Qing dynasty through his policies of uniting various Jurchen tribes and consolidating the Eight Banners military system.
After a series of successful battles, Nurhaci relocated his capital from Hetu Ala to Shenyang (Manchu: Mukden) in 1625.
In 1626, Nurhaci, the founder of the early Manchu state, passed away, leading to the succession of his eighth son, Hong Taiji, as the leader of the Jurchen people.
In 1634, Hong Taiji created his own artillery corps to address technological disparities, casting cannons in European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists.
In November 1635, Hong Taiji officially adopted the name 'Manchu' for the united Jurchen people, marking a significant event in the history of the Qing dynasty.
In April 1636, Hong Taiji was recommended to be the emperor of the Great Qing by Mongol nobility of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility, and Han mandarins, leading to the renaming of the state and his elevation to Emperor.
In 1637, the first two Han Banners were established by Hong Taiji, which later increased to eight by 1642. These military reforms played a crucial role in defeating Ming forces in battles for territories like Songshan and Jinzhou.
In 1639, the Tokugawa regime of Japan closed off most of its foreign trade with European powers, impacting the flow of silver into China.
By 1642, the number of Han Banners established by Hong Taiji had increased to eight. These military units were instrumental in the victories against Ming forces during battles for Songshan and Jinzhou territories.
In September 1643, Hong Taiji, the ruler of the Qing Dynasty, passed away suddenly. This event led to a succession dispute within the Jurchen leadership, eventually resulting in the installment of his son, Fulin, as the Shunzhi Emperor.
On May 27, 1644, Wu Sangui and Dorgon allied to defeat Li Zicheng's rebel forces in battle. This victory played a crucial role in the capture of Beijing and the establishment of the Qing Dynasty.
After the defeat of Li Zicheng's rebel forces at the Battle of Shanhai Pass, the Manchus and Wu Sangui entered Beijing and proclaimed the young Shunzhi Emperor as the new ruler of China, marking the beginning of the Qing dynasty.
On October 30, 1644, Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty claimed the ''Mandate of Heaven'', solidifying the legitimacy of the Qing rule.
The southern cadet branch of Confucius' descendants and the 65th generation descendant in the northern branch had their titles confirmed by the Shunzhi Emperor upon the Qing entry into Beijing. The Kong's title of Duke was maintained in later reigns.
Dorgon issued the controversial July 1645 edict, known as the 'haircutting order', which forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and adopt the queue hairstyle. This policy was a test of loyalty to the Qing dynasty but faced strong resistance from the Han Chinese population.
By 1648, Han Chinese defectors had swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners, with ethnic Manchus becoming a minority at 16%, Han Bannermen dominating at 75%, and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest.
Dorgon, the regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation, died suddenly on December 31, 1650, marking the start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule.
In 1661, Kangxi became the Emperor of the Qing Dynasty after the death of Emperor Shunzhi, marking the beginning of his long and prosperous reign.
In 1662, Ming loyalists under Zheng Cheng-gong, also known as Koxinga, drove out the Dutch from Taiwan and established their authority over the island.
The hanging scroll 'White Clouds over Xiao and Xiang' was created in 1668 by Wang Jian, one of the Six Masters of the early Qing period. This artwork exemplifies the artistic innovation and individualism of Qing dynasty artists.
In 1669, Kangxi, at the age of fifteen, managed to disarm and imprison Oboi, a powerful politician and experienced commander, who had achieved significant political dominance and posed a potential threat to the young emperor.
The Sacred Edict of 1670 extolled Confucian family values and demonstrated the Qing emperor's respect for Confucian learning, contributing to the stability of the dynasty by promoting traditional Chinese values.
In 1673, three feudal lords, including Wu Sangui, revolted against Kangxi's decision to strip them of their powers, leading to an eight-year conflict known as the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, which resulted in the Qing government establishing control over a ravaged southern China.
By 1681, the Qing government had successfully unified its forces and established control over a ravaged southern China, marking the end of the Revolt of the Three Feudatories that lasted for eight years.
In 1683, the Qing dynasty forces successfully took control of Taiwan's western and northern coastal areas, establishing their authority over the island.
In 1685, the Kangxi emperor legalized private maritime trade along the coast and established the Canton Cohong system, an association of thirteen business firms with exclusive rights to conduct trade with Western merchants in Canton. This system became the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China until its abolition after the Opium War in 1842.
The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk was China's first formal treaty with a European power, Russia. It kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries.
The Kangxi Emperor issued an edict of toleration towards Christianity in 1692, allowing for more freedom of religious practice.
The Chinese Qing dynasty officially began trading with the British in 1698, marking the start of economic relations between the two powers.
By the end of the 18th century, China's population had doubled to 300 million from the late Ming period, due to factors like peace, stability, and the introduction of new crops from the Americas. This led to a boom in production, expansion of markets, and the rise of merchant guilds with significant social and political influence.
The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the publication of Peiwen Yunfu, a rhyme dictionary in 1711, which remains an authoritative reference in Chinese literature.
The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the publication of the Kangxi Dictionary in 1716, which remains an authoritative reference in Chinese literature.
After the death of Kangxi Emperor, his fourth son, Prince Yong, became the Yongzheng Emperor in 1723. He promoted Confucian orthodoxy, cracked down on unorthodox sects, and outlawed Christianity.
In 1724, the Yongzheng Emperor declared Christianity as a 'heterodox teaching' and prohibited its practice.
In 1725, the Yongzheng emperor created a parent corporation comprising forty individual mercantile houses in major port cities, known as the Cohong system. This system consolidated trade with Western merchants in Canton and played a crucial role in international trade with China.
A team of Manchus drafted the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727 to strengthen diplomatic ties with Russia. The Qing agreed to give up territory and trading rights in exchange for freedom to address issues in Mongolia.
Emperor Qianlong ruled China from 1735 to 1796, overseeing a prosperous period of expansion and population growth, but facing challenges of corruption and financial loss towards the end of his reign.
In 1740, groups of Han Chinese bannermen were transferred into Manchu Banners by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu.
Wu Jingzi's highly skilled novel, The Scholars, was published in 1750 during the Qing Dynasty, reflecting social commentary and psychological insight.
In 1759, the Qing dynasty conquered Dzungaria and proclaimed the new land as part of 'China' in a Manchu-language memorial, expanding the empire's territory.
In 1762, the Qing Dynasty established the post of Ili General to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over the regions north and south of the Tian Shan mountains in Xinjiang, also known as Dzungaria and Tarim Basin respectively.
The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the completion of the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, in 1782.
In 1793, China shifted its trade policy and demanded to be paid in silver instead of exchanging goods, impacting international trade and economy.
In 1796, the White Lotus Rebellion broke out among followers of the White Lotus Society, blaming Qing officials for corruption, famine relief failures, and bureaucratic factionalism. The rebellion lasted until 1804.
Robert Morrison of the London Missionary Society arrived in China in 1807, marking the beginning of Protestant Christian missions in the country.
In 1811, the Jiaqing Emperor criminalized Christian religious activities, further restricting the practice of Christianity in the Qing Dynasty.
Li Ruzhen's novel, Flowers in the Mirror, was published in 1827 during the Qing Dynasty, showcasing social commentary and psychological insight.
In 1838, the Qing Dynasty of China faced the First Opium War with Britain, who sought trading cities along the Chinese coast. The Qing resisted British influence and the opium trade, but ultimately lost to British forces.
In 1839, Lin Zexu was tasked to end the opium trade in China, leading to the First Opium War with Britain. The Qing military's outdated tactics and weaponry were no match for the British forces, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing.
In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed, ending the Opium War and leading to the cession of Hong Kong to Britain and opening of Chinese ports to foreign trade.
The imperial ban on Christianity was lifted by Treaty in 1846, allowing for the resumption of Christian religious activities.
The Taiping Rebellion, led by Hong Xiuquan, broke out in 1850 and became one of the bloodiest conflicts in history, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Qing dynasty less than 50 years later.
The Second Opium War was triggered by an incident involving the boarding of a ship, the Arrow, by Qing authorities. This led to hostilities between Britain and China, resulting in the Treaty of Tientsin which contained clauses insulting to the Chinese.
The Xianfeng Emperor agreed to the Treaty of Tientsin, containing clauses insulting to the Chinese, such as demands for English in official documents and British warships access to Chinese rivers.
Anglo-French forces looted and burnt the Old Summer Palace in Beijing as revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission.
The Tongzhi Restoration began in 1861 when the five-year-old Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne. It aimed to adopt Western military technology while preserving Confucian values, with officials like Zuo Zongtang and Li Hongzhang leading the effort.
Shen Fu demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir with the publication of Six Chapters of a Floating Life in 1877.
In 1884, the Qing Dynasty established Xinjiang province, changing the governance structure of the region and applying the political system of China proper onto Xinjiang.
The First Sino-Japanese War of 1895 was a military humiliation for Qing China, resulting in the Treaty of Shimonoseki which recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan. The war highlighted China's weakening power in East Asia.
In 1890, a fan was created featuring a map depicting the provinces of China and nearby regions. This cultural achievement showcased the geographical knowledge and artistic skills of the time.
In 1895, the Qing Dynasty ceded Taiwan to Japan.
The Guangxu Emperor initiated the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, aiming to reorganize the bureaucracy and appoint new officials, but faced opposition and was eventually halted by the Empress Dowager.
The Boxer Rebellion began in 1899, leading to the persecution of foreigners and Christians in China. Western countries intervened by sending troops and declaring war.
Widespread drought in North China, combined with imperialist designs of European powers and instability of the Qing government, led to emergence of the Boxers. In 1900, Boxers murdered foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians, besieged the Foreign Legation Quarter in Beijing, and were defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance.
Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict calling for reform proposals, leading to the era of the dynasty's 'New Policies' or 'Late Qing Reform'. The reforms included the creation of a national education system and abolition of the imperial examinations in 1905.
The Qing dynasty abolished the Imperial Examinations in 1905 as part of reform efforts. The dynasty also sought to introduce consultative assemblies and made other reforms, but these efforts failed to maintain the Qing rule.
In 1906, the Qing government asserted Chinese sovereignty over Tibet in response to a British expedition force sent to Tibet. The Anglo-Chinese Convention was signed, with Britain agreeing not to annex Tibetan territory and China agreeing not to permit foreign interference in Tibet's administration.
Empress Dowager Cixi, a moderate reformer who oversaw the Tongzhi Restoration, passed away in 1908, leaving the Qing dynasty in a state of turmoil.
On November 14, 1908, Emperor Guangxu of China died of arsenic poisoning, which was followed by the death of Empress Dowager Cixi the next day.
Empress Dowager Cixi passes away, marking a significant event in the history of the Qing Dynasty.
On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established in Nanjing, marking the end of the Qing dynasty and the beginning of a period of instability.
The Wuchang Uprising of 10 October 1911 led to the rejection of Qing rule by most provinces and the establishment of the Republic of China in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as provisional head. This marked the beginning of the end of Imperial China.
Empress Dowager Longyu issued an imperial edict bringing about the abdication of the child emperor Puyi on 12 February 1912, ending over 2,000 years of Imperial China and ushering in a period of warlord factionalism.
The book 'The Great Enterprise' by Frederic Wakeman, published in 1985, focuses on the Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China.
Edward J.M. Rhoads' book from 2000 delves into the ethnic relations and political dynamics between the Manchus and Han Chinese during the late Qing and early Republican China.
The book 'China's Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon' by Young-tsu Wong discusses the historical events surrounding China's conquest of Taiwan during the 17th century.