Second Sino-Japanese War

The First Sino-Japanese War took place from 1894 to 1895, resulting in China's defeat by Japan. The Treaty of Shimonoseki forced China to cede Taiwan and recognize the independence of Korea.

In 1895, Japan took the island of Taiwan from China’s Qing Dynasty after the First Sino-Japanese War, which was a significant event leading to the subsequent conflicts between the two nations.

Japan gained significant territory in Manchuria following the victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, which led to the Japanese Army being widely prevalent in the region.

In 1911, factions of the Qing Army uprose against the government, staging a revolution that swept across China's southern provinces, leading to the collapse of the Qing dynasty.

The Republic of China was established in 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution, which overthrew the Qing Dynasty. However, the new Republic faced challenges due to the dominance of warlords.

By pressuring Yuan Shikai, the president of the Republic of China, Japan negotiated a significant amount of economic privilege in Manchuria, leading to a widened range of economic privileges and a focus on developing and protecting matters of economic interests.

The Northern Expedition was launched by the Kuomintang in 1926 to unify China and overthrow the warlords. It encountered resistance in Shandong, where the Japanese-backed warlord Zhang Zongchang attempted to halt the Kuomintang's progress.

The Jinan Incident occurred in 1928, involving a conflict between the Kuomintang army and the Japanese forces in Shandong. This event highlighted the tensions between China and Japan.

The July–November 1929 conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) further increased the tensions in the Northeast that led to the Mukden Incident and eventually the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Japan invaded Manchuria following the Mukden Incident, which served as the pretext for the invasion.

The 18 September 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria is considered by some Chinese historians as the start of the War of Resistance. This view was officially adopted by the Chinese government in 2017, recognizing the 1931-1937 period as the 'partial' war and 1937-1945 as a period of 'total' war, providing more recognition for the role of northeast China in the War of Resistance.

Chinese and Japanese soldiers fought a short war resulting in the demilitarization of Shanghai, forbidding the Chinese from deploying troops in their own city.

In January 1933, the Defense of the Great Wall took place, involving military actions to protect the Great Wall of China from external threats.

The Lytton Report, published in February 1933, condemned Japan for its incursion of Manchuria, leading to Japan's withdrawal from the League of Nations. This report had significant implications for the international response to Japan's actions in Manchuria.

The Anti-Japanese Allied Army launched a campaign against the Japanese forces from May to October 1933.

The Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army Resistance, spanning from 1934 to 1941, represented a significant Chinese effort to resist Japanese occupation in Manchuria.

Mengjiang, a puppet state in Inner Mongolia, was established between December 1935 and May 1936.

The Mongol Military Government was formed on May 12, 1936 in the vacated area of Chahar with Japan providing military and economic aid.

Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, forming an alliance against the spread of communism.

Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng conspired to kidnap Chiang Kai-shek and force him into a truce with the CCP, leading to the formation of the Second United Front to focus on fighting the Japanese.

The Xi'an Incident resulted in the forming of a United Front of the CPC and KMT against Japan on December 24, 1936.

Stalin's desire to prevent a two front war led to his further support of China against Japanese aggression, resulting in the KMT and CCP joining forces to oppose the Japanese.

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when a small clash between Chinese and Japanese troops escalated into a full-scale invasion of China by Japan.

A conflict erupted between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing, leading to China formally declaring war against Japan. Subsequently, Japanese troops committed atrocities in Nanjing, resulting in the deaths of thousands of city residents.

On 11 July 1937, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff authorized the deployment of an infantry division and other reinforcements to Northern China in accordance with the Goso conference. This marked a significant escalation of the conflict in the region.

After 24 days of combat, the Chinese 29th Army was forced to withdraw, leading to the capture of Beijing and the Taku Forts at Tianjin by the Japanese. This marked a significant advancement for the Japanese forces in the region.

The Ōyama Incident on 9 August 1937 escalated the skirmishes and battles into full-scale warfare, inspiring the 1937 'Sword March' which became the National Revolutionary Army's standard marching cadence. This incident popularized the racial epithet guizi to describe the Japanese invaders.

The Battle of Shanghai began on August 13, 1937, when Kuomintang soldiers and warplanes attacked Japanese Marine positions, leading to intense fighting and significant civilian casualties.

The Battle of Shanghai was a major engagement in the Second Sino-Japanese War, resulting in heavy casualties and destruction as the Japanese sought to capture the city.

Chinese forces were ordered to capture or destroy the Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to bitter street fighting.

The Chinese Air Force attacked Japanese troop landings at Wusongkou in northern Shanghai, leading to a dogfight with Japanese forces.

The Japanese Imperial Army easily defeated KMT forces and took control of Tianjin during the Battle of Shanghai.

The Battle of Shanghai lasted for three months and was a significant conflict between the Chinese and Japanese forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Chinese forces, particularly the KMT army, displayed their better training and resilience against the dominant Japanese forces.

On October 26, 1937, the Defense of Sihang Warehouse took place, where Chinese forces valiantly defended the warehouse against Japanese attacks during the Battle of Shanghai.

Stalin provided approximately $250 in credits and loans to support China against the Japanese, aiming to prevent Japanese leadership from attacking the Soviet Union.

Between December 13, 1937, and late January 1938, Japanese forces committed the Nanjing Massacre, resulting in the estimated killing of 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians, marking one of the darkest events of the war.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the city of Nanjing was brutally invaded and occupied by the Japanese forces. The event resulted in mass killings, looting, and widespread atrocities against Chinese civilians and prisoners of war.

In March-April 1938, the Japanese field generals escalated the war in Jiangsu in an attempt to wipe out Chinese resistance, but were defeated at the Battle of Taierzhuang.

The Battle of Taierzhuang took place from 4 March to 7 April 1938. It was a significant battle between the Chinese and Japanese forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Battle of Xuzhou occurred from March 24 to May 1, 1938, and was a major confrontation between Chinese and Japanese forces during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

On June 6, 1938, the Japanese captured Kaifeng, the capital of Henan, and threatened to take Zhengzhou, the junction of the Pinghan and Longhai railways.

From 11 June to 27 October 1938, the Battle of Wuhan unfolded, marking a crucial phase in the Second Sino-Japanese War with significant consequences.

The Battle of Wuhan ended with the fall of the city, signifying a significant victory for the Japanese forces in their campaign against China.

Maxwell S. Stewart, a former Foreign Policy Association research staff and economist, testified before the United States Congress House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs, alleging that America's Neutrality Act and its 'neutrality policy' was a farce benefiting Japan. He claimed that Japan's invasion of China was made possible by the massive amount of raw material America exported to Japan.

China successfully defended Changsha against Japan in 1939, boosting their confidence in the war effort.

The 1939-40 Winter Offensive was a military campaign that took place from November 1939 to March 1940.

Jay Taylor's book highlights that by January 1940, the Chinese army suffered 1.3 million casualties, with only a small percentage attributed to Communist forces. This illustrates the heavy toll of the war on Nationalist troops.

The Battle of Wuyuan occurred in March 1940 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Battle of Zaoyang-Yichang took place in May 1940 as part of the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Hundred Regiments Offensive was a major campaign launched by the Chinese Communists against the Japanese in August 1940.

The Indochina Expedition refers to the Japanese military campaign in Indochina in September 1940.

The Central Hopei Operation was a significant military action in November 1940 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The New Fourth Army Incident was a skirmish between the KMT-CCP forces, which highlighted the lack of commitment from both sides to fight together in the Second United Front.

The Battle of Shanggao occurred in March 1941 and was a significant engagement in the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Battle of South Shanxi was a military confrontation that took place in May 1941 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

China became a beneficiary of the Lend-Lease Act on May 6, 1941, receiving significant diplomatic, financial, and military support from the U.S. as a result.

Operation Barbarossa was the code name for the German invasion of the Soviet Union, which resulted in the Soviet Union being limited in its support for China.

Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina, violating a 1940 agreement and posing a direct threat to British and Dutch colonies.

President Roosevelt demanded Japan to withdraw all its forces from Indochina, leading to the US, UK, and Netherlands imposing an oil embargo, which was a decisive moment in the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Battle of Changsha in 1941 was a significant battle in the ongoing conflict of the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Imperial Headquarter Order number 575, authorized on 3 December 1941, gave the official authorization for the implementation of the Three Alls Policy (Sanko Sakusen) in north China by General Yasuji Okamura.

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany, and Italy, significantly altering the course of the war.

The Battle of Changsha in 1942 was a major military engagement during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road was a significant military campaign that took place from March to June 1942 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

By May 30, 1942, Japan had gained control of Burma, effectively cutting off the crucial supply line to China. This had a major impact on the ability of China to resist the Japanese invasion.

China successfully defended Changsha against Japan in 1942, marking their third consecutive victory in the region.

During the Cairo Conference in November 1943, the status of Chiang Kai-shek was elevated.

Operation Ichi-Go was a campaign of the Imperial Japanese Army in China during World War II. It was the largest Japanese land campaign of the war and resulted in the capture of important cities and transportation hubs.

The Battle of Mount Song lasted from June 4 to September 7, 1944.

The Defense of Hengyang took place from June 22 to August 8, 1944. It resulted in a Pyrrhic victory for Japan and led to the collapse of the Tojo cabinet.

The Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou occurred from August 16 to November 24, 1944.

The Battle of West Henan-North Hubei occurred from March 21 to May 11, 1945, resulting in a tactical stalemate and a Japanese operational victory.

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, leading to widespread destruction and loss of life, ultimately contributing to the end of World War II.

On 9 August 1945, the Soviet Union renounced its non-aggression pact with Japan and attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta Conference pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe.

Japanese Emperor Hirohito officially capitulated to the Allies on 15 August 1945, marking a significant event in the conclusion of the Pacific War.

The official surrender was signed aboard the battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, marking the end of World War II and the victory of the Allies, including China, over Japan.

The Republic of China on Taiwan traditionally celebrated Victory Day on September 9, now known as Armed Forces Day, to mark the victory in the war against Japan. However, with political changes, commemorations of the war have become less common.

The Republic of China (ROC) government took administrative control of Taiwan and the Penghu islands in 1945, and proclaimed Taiwan Retrocession Day on 25 October 1945. The unresolved Chinese Civil War led to disputes over the sovereignty of Taiwan.

On December 9, 1945, Japan formally surrenders in China, and the Soviet Army accepts their surrender. The Soviet Army dismantles many factories in Manchuria to take them back to the USSR and works to hand over surrendered Japanese weapons to the CCP Red Army.

Following France's agreement to Chiang Kai-shek's demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops from northern Indochina began in March 1946. Chiang Kai-shek had threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement.

The legacy of Communist victory in China’s civil war is an important issue confronting those who research the Sino-Japanese conflict, as it had a significant impact on the outcome and aftermath of the war.

The U.S. Army Map Service produced topographic maps of Manchuria during the Second World War in 1950, providing valuable geographical information for military operations.

The Treaty of Taipei was signed between the ROC and Japan in 1952, following similar guidelines as the Treaty of San Francisco. It did not specify the sovereignty over Taiwan, but Article 10 stated that the Taiwanese people and the juridical person should be the people and the juridical person of the ROC.

Takushiro Hattori's four-volume history provided a Japanese interpretation of the 1931–1945 period, shedding light on the planning and campaigns during the war. It offers valuable insights into the Japanese perspective of the conflict.

The Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection contains topographic maps of China dating back to 1954, providing valuable insight into the geographical features of the region during the Second World War.

The translated volume provides a detailed account based on the Nationalists’ interpretation of the war and its campaigns. It offers insights into the Nationalist leadership and their sacrifices during the conflict.

Total War is a comprehensive history of the Second World War, including the war in Asia, based mainly upon secondary sources. It provides valuable insights into the Europe-first strategy of the Americans and British and its impact on the war in China.

The book 'China’s Bitter Victory' contains a series of essays that shed light on various aspects of the Second Sino-Japanese War. It emphasizes the impact of the war on China, highlighting the country's weakened state despite its victory.

After the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidential election in 2000, national holidays commemorating the war were cancelled, as the pro-independent DPP did not see the relevancy of celebrating events that happened in mainland China.

Harvard University conducted a multi-year project aimed at expanding research on the Sino-Japanese War by fostering collaboration among scholars and institutions from China, Japan, the United States, and other nations. The project included extensive bibliographies.

In 2005, the cultural bureau of pan-blue stronghold Taipei held a series of talks in the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall regarding the war and post-war developments, while the KMT held its own exhibit in the KMT headquarters to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of the end of the war.

After the KMT won the presidential election in 2008, the ROC government resumed commemorating the war.