Nuclear Fusion

In 1920, Arthur Eddington suggests that the energy released by fusing small nuclei together powers the stars, based on F.W. Aston's measurements and Einstein's equation E=mc2.

In 1926, British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington published the groundbreaking theory that stars generate energy through the fusion of hydrogen into helium. This idea revolutionized the field of astrophysics and sparked global scientific interest in fusion energy.

Mark Oliphant discovers helium-3 and tritium, and demonstrates that heavy hydrogen nuclei could react with each other using an updated version of the equipment firing deuterium. This marks the first direct demonstration of fusion in a laboratory setting.

Australian physicist Mark Oliphant conducted the first laboratory demonstration of nuclear fusion in 1934. His work led to the discovery of helium-3 and tritium, essential elements in nuclear fusion, and laid the foundation for hydrogen bomb development.

Hans Bethe provides detailed calculations of the proton-proton chain reaction that powers stars, leading to significant advancements in the understanding of stellar energy production. Bethe's work in this area earns him a Nobel Prize in Physics.

George Paget Thomson of Imperial College, London designs the toroidal solenoid fusion device and files for a patent with Moses Blackman. This device becomes the first fusion device to receive a patent.

Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam collaborate at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1951 to create the Teller-Ulam design for thermonuclear weapons, enabling the production of powerful multi-megaton weapons. This innovation revolutionizes nuclear weapon technology.

The Ivy Mike shot of Operation Ivy marks the first detonation of a thermonuclear weapon, yielding 10.4 megatons of TNT from a fusion fuel of liquid deuterium.

The Soviet RDS-6S test, code named 'Joe 4', showcases a fission/fusion/fission design for a nuclear weapon, known as the 'Layercake' design.

In 1954, Edward Teller delivers a renowned speech on plasma stability in magnetic bottles at the Princeton Gun Club. He highlights the interchange instability, suggesting that most magnetic bottles are inherently unstable.

In 1956, experimental research on tokamak designs began in the Soviet Union at the Moscow Kurchatov Institute. The tokamak combined pinch and stellarator fields to improve confinement times and densities.

In September 1958, American, British, and Soviet scientists shared previously classified controlled fusion research at the Atoms for Peace conference in Geneva. This marked a significant international collaboration in the pursuit of peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

In 1961, the Soviet Union tested the Tsar Bomba, a 50-megaton thermonuclear weapon, making it the most powerful ever detonated. This event showcased the advancements in thermonuclear technology during the Cold War era.

In 1968, a breakthrough occurred in the Soviet Union with the tokamak, achieving unprecedented temperature levels and plasma confinement times, marking a significant step in fusion research.

Princeton completes the conversion of the Model C stellarator to the Symmetrical Tokamak, surpassing Soviet results. This marks a significant advancement in fusion research with plans for a larger machine to further test plasma heating methods.

In December 1973, KMS Fusion successfully compresses fuel and demonstrates the world's first laser-induced fusion. Neutron-sensitive nuclear emulsion detectors, developed by Robert Hofstadter, were used to provide evidence of this discovery.

On 1 May 1974, KMS Fusion successfully demonstrates the world's first laser-induced fusion. This achievement marks a significant milestone in the field of nuclear fusion.

Based on the success of the PLT, the DOE selected a larger Princeton design for further development. Originally intended to test a commercial-sized tokamak, the project was redirected to focus on running on deuterium-tritium fuel, leading to the creation of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR).

In 1979, the Joint European Torus (JET) project, involving 11 nations, laid its foundations. The project aimed to advance fusion research and technology.

The Joint European Torus (JET), the largest operational magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment, was completed on time and on budget, achieving first plasmas.

The NOVA laser, a 10-beam laser system at LLNL, was completed and started operating in December. It would go on to achieve significant milestones in generating infrared laser light.

In November 1985, the Geneva Superpower Summit witnessed the launch of ITER, an international collaborative project aimed at developing fusion energy for peaceful purposes. The proposal for this initiative was made by General Secretary Gorbachev of the former Soviet Union to US President Reagan.

In 1987, Akira Hasegawa discovered that fluctuations in a dipolar magnetic field could compress plasma without energy loss. This observation laid the foundation for the levitated dipole fusion approach.

On March 23, Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann announced the achievement of cold fusion, claiming fusion reactions at room temperatures. However, their work was not peer-reviewed, and subsequent experiments did not confirm their findings.

JET achieved the world's first controlled release of fusion power in the Preliminary Tritium Experiment.

The NIF Beamlet laser was finished in 1994 and started conducting experiments to confirm its anticipated capabilities at the National Ignition Facility.

In 1997, the JET tokamak in the UK set a world record by producing 16 MW of fusion power. This achievement remained unmatched until 2022 when JET surpassed its own record.

NSTX, launched on February 12, 1999, is an innovative magnetic fusion device constructed by the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) in collaboration with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Columbia University, and the University of Washington at Seattle. It is being used to study the physics principles of spherically shaped plasmas, contributing to advancements in nuclear fusion research.

In 2001, the building construction for the National Ignition Facility (NIF) project, which is a 192-beam 500-terawatt laser fusion research facility, was completed. The NIF project aims to achieve controlled nuclear fusion and take its first full system shot in 2010.

Werner Burkart presented a status report on fusion research in 2005. The report likely discussed the current progress, challenges, and future prospects of fusion research.

The ITER Agreement was signed in 2006 to collaborate on the development of fusion energy as a sustainable and clean source of power.

In 2007, the ITER International Fusion Energy Organization was established to jointly implement the ITER Project, aiming to advance research in nuclear fusion.

Robert J. Burke presented on 'Single Pass Heavy Ion Fusion' and the Accelerator Working Group recommended moving RF accelerator driven HIF towards commercialization.

Sandia National Labs published a paper in Physical Review Letters demonstrating a computer simulation of the MagLIF concept achieving high gain and potential for significant energy return.

In 2013, China's EAST tokamak test reactor achieved a record confinement time of 30 seconds for plasma in the high-confinement mode (H-mode), marking a significant advancement in fusion research.

In 2017, China's EAST tokamak test reactor achieves a stable 101.2-second steady-state high confinement plasma, setting a world record in long-pulse H-mode operation on the night of July 3.

In 2018, Eni announced a substantial investment in Commonwealth Fusion Systems to commercialize ARC technology, showcasing the growing interest in fusion energy.

The Fusion Industry Association (FIA) was established in 2019 to advocate for the development and commercialization of fusion energy technologies.

United States researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory National Ignition Facility (NIF) recorded the first case of ignition on August 8, 2021, producing an energy yield of 0.72.

On February 15, 2023, Wendelstein 7-X achieved a new milestone by generating power plasma with gigajoule energy turnover for eight minutes.

Experts believe large-scale nuclear fusion energy generation may not be achieved before 2050. Overcoming challenges like maintaining the reaction and generating more energy than required are key for the future of nuclear fusion.