Apartheid

Large-scale European colonisation of South Africa began in 1652 with the establishment of a trading post by the Dutch East India Company, leading to racial discrimination and inequality against black people.

In 1797, the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws to include all Khoikhoi, requiring them to carry passes when moving around the country.

The Hottentot Proclamation of 1809 by the British Colonial government decreed that Khoikhoi individuals needed a pass from their master or a local official to move around.

Ordinance No. 49 of 1828 required prospective black immigrants to carry passes for the purpose of seeking work, with passes issued to Coloureds and Khoikhoi but not to other Africans.

The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire, leading to the change of status of slaves in South Africa to indentured labourers.

Ordinance 1 in 1835 expanded South African legislation to change the status of slaves to indentured labourers.

Ordinance 3 in 1848 introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was similar to slavery.

The Franchise and Ballot Act of 1892 disenfranchised a significant number of non-white voters in the Cape Colony by raising property franchise qualifications and adding an educational element.

The Glen Grey Act of 1894 limited the amount of land Africans could hold in the Cape Colony.

In 1896, the South African Republic implemented pass laws requiring Africans to carry badges and restricting their movement based on employment status.

The General Pass Regulations Act of 1905 denied Black people the vote and confined them to specific areas.

The Asiatic Registration Act of 1906 in the Transvaal Colony mandated all Indians to register and carry passes.

Since 1910, when independent white rule was established in South Africa, black South Africans have been facing discrimination and oppression under the white minority government. This historical event laid the foundation for future protests and resistance against apartheid policies.

The African National Congress (ANC) was established in Bloemfontein in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC). It initially represented the educated Black elite and later became a key organization in the fight against apartheid in South Africa.

The controversial 1913 Land Act marked the beginning of territorial segregation in South Africa by forcing Black Africans to live in reserves and restricting their work as sharecroppers.

The term 'apartheid', meaning 'separateness' or 'the state of being apart', was first recorded in 1929, becoming associated with the system of racial segregation in South Africa.

The National Party assumes power in South Africa and begins implementing apartheid, a system of severe racial segregation and white supremacy.

In 1948, the South African government officially implemented the system of apartheid, which imposed severe restrictions on the freedom of Black Africans.

In 1949, the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was passed in South Africa as part of the apartheid laws. This act made it illegal for people of different races to marry each other, further enforcing racial segregation.

In 1950, the Population Registration Act was passed in South Africa, requiring all citizens to be classified by race. Additionally, the Group Areas Act was implemented to segregate residential areas based on race, further entrenching apartheid policies.

Under the Bantu Authorities Act of 1951, tribal organizations for Black Africans were reestablished by the government, further segregating the population and limiting the political rights of Black South Africans.

In 1952, Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo established the first Black legal firm in South Africa, marking a significant milestone in the fight against apartheid and for the rights of Black South Africans.

The Bantu Education Act of 1953 mandated state-run schools for Black children in South Africa, with a focus on providing basic education for manual labor and menial jobs, perpetuating racial discrimination in the education system.

Sophiatown, one of the few urban areas where black people were allowed to own land, was forcibly removed under the Western Areas Removal Scheme. Residents were taken to a new planned black city called Soweto, while Sophiatown was destroyed and replaced by a new white suburb named Triomf.

In 1956, Nelson Mandela was charged with high treason in a trial that had significant implications for the anti-apartheid movement. Mandela was ultimately found not guilty, but the trial highlighted the oppressive nature of the apartheid regime.

Blacks were prohibited from attending white churches under the Churches Native Laws Amendment Act of 1957, but this was never rigidly enforced. Churches were one of the few places races could mix without the interference of the law.

In 1958, the Promotion of Black Self-Government Act was passed, leading to the establishment of border industries and the Bantu Investment Corporation to promote economic development in the homelands.

In 1959, the South African parliament passed new laws that enforced racial segregation by establishing separate bantustans or homelands for the country's major Black groups.

Police opened fire on peaceful demonstrators in Sharpeville, resulting in the deaths of 69 men, women, and children and injuring around 200. The incident occurred during a protest against discriminatory laws for Africans.

On June 16, 1976, up to 10,000 Black schoolchildren protested a law forcing them to learn Afrikaans, leading to a massacre by police and sparking widespread resistance against apartheid.

South Africa withdrew from the Commonwealth on 31 May 1961, the day that the Republic came into existence, due to opposition from African and South and Southeast Asian member states over its apartheid policies.

In 1962, Nelson Mandela was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment for his anti-apartheid activities, becoming a symbol of resistance against the apartheid regime.

The United Nations Special Committee Against Apartheid scripted and passed Resolution 181 on 7 August 1963, calling upon all states to cease the sale and shipment of all ammunition and military vehicles to South Africa, which was later declared mandatory in 1977.

In 1964, Nelson Mandela and other members of the ANC were sentenced to life imprisonment following the Rivonia trial, a significant event in the anti-apartheid struggle.

Nelson Mandela is sentenced to life in prison in South Africa.

In 1965, Rhodesia (South Africa) gained independence, with only whites being represented in the new government. This further entrenched racial segregation and discrimination.

Verwoerd was assassinated in 1966, leading to John Vorster taking office and making changes to South Africa's international sporting policies.

The Separate Representation of Voters Amendment Act in 1968 marked the end of separate representatives for coloured voters in South Africa.

Fourteen Central and East African nations gathered in Lusaka, Zambia, to formulate the Lusaka Manifesto, which condemned racism and inequity in self-governing African countries. The manifesto called for Black majority rule in all African nations.

The Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act was passed in the 1970s, leading to the forced resettlement of over 3 million people in black 'homelands'.

The Mogadishu Declaration was issued in October 1971 in response to South Africa's rejection of negotiations. It stated that military means might be necessary to free Black South Africans and urged African states not to engage with the apartheid government.

In 1972, Congressman Charles C. Diggs, Jr. played a key role in establishing the National African Liberation Support Committee (ALSC), which was a coalition between the Congressional Black Caucus and Black activist groups, aiming to support African liberation movements.

In 1974, South Africa was expelled from the United Nations because of its apartheid policies, facing international isolation and condemnation for its discriminatory practices.

On June 16, 1976, the Soweto Uprising took place in South Africa, where black students protested against the compulsory use of Afrikaans in schools. The event marked a significant turning point in the anti-apartheid struggle.

Steve Biko, leader of the Black Consciousness Movement, was taken into custody and beaten to death while in detention, highlighting the brutality of the apartheid system.

In 1978, P.W. Botha, a vocal supporter of apartheid, replaced John Vorster as the Prime Minister of South Africa.

Venda was declared independent by the South African government in 1979, leading to the circumscription of South African citizenship for its citizens.

In June 1980, Nelson Mandela expressed his dedication to fighting against white domination and black domination, advocating for a democratic and free society with equal opportunities.

Ciskei was declared independent by the South African government in 1981, resulting in the issuance of passports to its citizens instead of passbooks.

In 1982, a referendum among Whites approved the establishment of the Tricameral Parliament in South Africa, which allowed Coloured and Indian minorities to participate in separate Houses.

Anti-apartheid leaders established the UDF to coordinate activism against apartheid within South Africa, advocating for the abolition of apartheid and the creation of a nonracial democratic state.

The township uprising of 1984-85 in South Africa led to a state of emergency being declared. The uprising was a significant period of resistance against apartheid policies.

On July 20, 1985, President Botha declared a State of Emergency in 36 magisterial districts, including the Eastern Cape and the PWV region. This led to increased government control, banning of organizations, and imposition of restrictions on individuals.

Sweden, particularly Prime Minister Olof Palme, provided moral and financial backing to the African National Congress (ANC), with Palme delivering a keynote address denouncing apartheid a week before his assassination.

On June 12, 1986, the State of Emergency was extended to cover the whole country, giving the government extraordinary powers to crush protests and dissent. Severe censorship and media control were key tactics used during this period.

Despite the veto, the act was signed into law. The administration acknowledged the law but highlighted that it would not fully resolve the issues in the country affected by apartheid.

The Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 was signed into law after being passed over the veto. Despite the implementation of the law, it was acknowledged that it would not fully resolve the serious problems in the country affected by apartheid.

By 1987, South Africa's economy was experiencing slow growth, while the ban on international sporting events was causing frustration among white South Africans.

In 1988, the activities of the United Democratic Front (UDF) and other anti-apartheid organizations were banned by the government, further tightening its grip on opposition movements.

On August 17, 1989, Naspers' managing director Ton Vosloo reaffirmed the company's support of the National Party in a letter to F.W. de Klerk. Vosloo mentioned previous donations made to the NP before elections.

Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27 years on February 11, 1990. His release had a significant impact in South Africa and globally, as he pledged to continue the struggle for peaceful change.

Namibia became independent on 21 March 1990 after negotiations involving South Africa, the UN Security Council, and other parties.

In December 1991, the South African Football Association was incorporated, aiming to create a non-racial controlling body for football in South Africa.

On March 17, 1992, a referendum is conducted in South Africa to decide on ending apartheid. However, the referendum is limited to white South African voters, raising questions about the inclusivity of the process.

On 18 March 1992, a referendum was held among white voters to determine if FW de Klerk had their mandate to end apartheid. An overwhelming 68% voted 'yes', allowing negotiations to proceed.

On 17 June 1992, the Boipatong massacre occurred where 46 people were killed by a group of Inkatha Freedom Party loyalists. Mandela accused the government of complicity and withdrew the ANC from negotiations.

A tragic event that occurred on 17 June 1992, where 200 IFP militants attacked the Gauteng township of Boipatong, resulting in the death of 45 people. The incident raised suspicions of police and army involvement in the ongoing violence.

On 3 July 1992, FIFA welcomed South Africa back into international football after the formation of the South African Football Association.

On 7 September 1992, the Ciskei Defence Force opened fire on ANC marchers, killing 29 people and injuring 200. This event led to Mandela and de Klerk meeting to address the escalating violence.

Chris Hani, the General Secretary of the SACP, was assassinated on 10 April 1993, leading to widespread protests and threats of chaos. His death served as a turning point in pushing for a settlement in South Africa.

On 25 July 1993, members of the APLA opened fire in a church in Cape Town, killing 11 and wounding 58. The attack was part of the violence leading up to the 1994 general election.

A coup d'état in Bophuthatswana on 10 March 1994, led by the SDF, deposed leader Lucas Mangope who refused to participate in the 1994 general elections. The intervention saw clashes with AWB militants.

On April 27, 1994, South Africa held its first democratic elections, marking the end of apartheid and the beginning of a new era of equality and freedom. Nelson Mandela was elected as the first black president of the country.

Nelson Mandela's open support of the predominantly white rugby fraternity during the 1995 Rugby World Cup played a significant role in uniting South African sports fans of all races.

In 1996, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, commenced hearings to address human rights abuses that occurred during the apartheid era. The commission aimed to promote healing and accountability in post-apartheid South Africa.

In 1997, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission requested Naspers to make a submission about its role between 1960 and 1994 in supporting apartheid. Naspers refused, leading to individual submissions by 127 employees apologizing for their involvement.

In 2005, Josephine C. Naidoo and Devi Moodley Rajab conducted a study interviewing Indian South Africans about their experiences during apartheid, focusing on education, workplace dynamics, and daily life. The study revealed severe discrimination and racialist policies faced by the Indian community.

A book written by Harriet A. Washington that explores the history of medical experimentation on African Americans.

In May 2008, the US Supreme Court upheld an appeal court ruling allowing a lawsuit seeking damages from major international companies accused of aiding South Africa's apartheid system, indicating ongoing legal battles related to apartheid-era injustices.

On June 9, 2010, a profile of Apartheid Inc. was published on the History Matters blog, shedding light on the operations and impact of this racist corporation.

In 2015, Media24 CEO Esmare Weideman issued a case-limited apology for Naspers's role in supporting apartheid, citing employee Conrad Sidego's experience. The apology was not unqualified.

A 2016 study in The Journal of Politics highlighted the negative effect of disenfranchisement in South Africa on basic service delivery to the disenfranchised.

Since 2019, publicly displaying the 1928-1994 flag in South Africa is banned and classified as hate speech.

In a video released after his death in 2021, F. W. de Klerk apologised for apartheid, both on a personal level and in his capacity as former president.