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Superconductivity

Physical properties with zero resistance and magnetic expulsion

Superconductivity is a phenomenon where materials exhibit zero electrical resistance and expel magnetic fields. Discovered in 1911, it is characterized by a critical temperature below which resistance drops to zero. The Meissner effect, observed during transitions into the superconducting state, is a key feature. High-temperature superconductors, with critical temperatures above 90 K, were discovered in 1986, enabling practical applications at higher temperatures.

Related

Quantum Mechanics Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory James Clerk Maxwell Nikola Tesla Michael Faraday Nuclear Fusion Theory of Relativity Ludwig Boltzmann Applied Materials Niels Bohr

Timeline

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes liquefies helium

On July 10, 1908, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of Leiden, successfully liquefied helium for the first time. He was able to determine the boiling point of helium at 4.3 K and further lower the temperature to 1.7 K by reducing the pressure of the helium bath.

Discovery of Superconductivity

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovered superconductivity in mercury at a temperature of 4.19 K, where the resistivity abruptly disappeared. He later coined the term 'superconductivity' and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913 for his research.

Disappearance of the Resistivity of Mercury

A study conducted in Leiden in May 1911 observed the disappearance of resistivity in mercury.

Discovery of Tin and Lead Superconductivity

In December 1912, a scientist discovered that tin and lead, metals that could be easily made into wires at room temperature, could exhibit superconductivity at low temperatures.

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes Nobel Lecture

On December 11, 1913, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes delivered his Nobel Lecture on 'Investigations into the properties of substances at low temperatures', which included the preparation of liquid helium. His work laid the foundation for superconductivity research.

Interdependence of critical current and critical field demonstrated

In 1916, Francis Silsbee of the National Bureau of Standards in America analyzed the Leiden data and demonstrated the interdependence of critical current and critical field, a significant advancement in the understanding of superconductors.

Discovery of Superconductivity in Bismuth-Gold Alloy

In 1924, Wander Johannes de Haas and Willem Hendrik Keesom discovered that a solid solution of 4% bismuth in gold exhibited superconductivity at 1.9 K, even though neither bismuth nor gold were superconducting at ambient pressure.

Discovery of Superconductivity in Niobium

In 1930, W. Meissner and H. Franz conducted measurements using liquid helium and discovered the superconductivity of niobium.

Meissner Effect Discovery

Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered the Meissner effect in 1933, where superconductors expelled applied magnetic fields. This phenomenon became crucial in understanding the behavior of superconducting materials.

Fritz and Heinz London's London Constitutive Equations

Fritz and Heinz London proposed the London constitutive equations in 1935, explaining the Meissner effect in superconductors. These equations describe the magnetic field distribution inside a superconductor.

Discovery of superconducting compounds with high transition temperatures

G. Aschermann, E. Freiderich, E. Justi, and J. Kramer reported the discovery of superconducting compounds with high transition temperatures in Physik. Zeit. in 1941.

Death of Shubnikov in Prison

Shubnikov, a key figure in the development of Type II superconductors, died in prison in 1945 as a victim of Stalin's purges. His contributions were not fully acknowledged until his posthumous exoneration.

Increase of Tc Ceiling for Superconductors to 17.86 K

In 1953, Bern Matthias at Bell Laboratories raised the critical temperature ceiling for superconductors to 17.86 K using NbN-NbC.

First Successful Superconducting Magnet

In 1954, the first successful superconducting magnet was created by George Yntema at the University of Illinois. This marked the beginning of engineering superconductivity, using Nb wire which had a higher critical field compared to other superconductors.

BCS Theory of Superconductivity

In 1956, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer proposed the BCS theory of superconductivity. The theory explains how electrons can form pairs and move through a conductor without resistance at low temperatures.

The BCS theory of superconductivity was proposed by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer in December 1957.

BCS Theory Supported by Bogolyubov

In 1958, N. N. Bogolyubov showed that the BCS wavefunction could be obtained using a canonical transformation of the electronic Hamiltonian, providing further support for the BCS theory of superconductivity.

Gor'kov's Contribution to BCS Theory

In 1959, Lev Gor'kov demonstrated that the BCS theory reduced to the Ginzburg–Landau theory near the critical temperature, enhancing the understanding of superconductivity.

Discovery of Niobium-Tin Superconductor

In 1961, J. E. Kunzler, E. Buehler, F. S. L. Hsu, and J. H. Wernick found that a niobium-tin compound could support high current densities in magnetic fields, leading to the development of supermagnets.

Observation of Quantum Periodicity in Superconducting Cylinder

In 1962, Little and Parks observed quantum periodicity in the transition temperature of a superconducting cylinder, as published in Physical Review Letters. This discovery marked a significant advancement in the understanding of superconductivity.

Synthesis of Organic Superconductors

In 1964, Bill Little of Stanford University suggested the possibility of organic (carbon-based) superconductors. The first theoretical organic superconductors were successfully synthesized, opening up new possibilities in the field of superconductivity.

Lev Gorkov's High Field Superconductivity Theory

Lev Gorkov developed a theory in 1965 that focused on superconductivity at high magnetic fields. His work emphasized the variation in the energy gap parameter with position, providing valuable insights into superconducting behavior.

BCS Theory and Nobel Prize

The BCS theory, formulated by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer, described superconductivity and placed a limit on the critical temperature. The creators of the theory were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972.

Nobel Prize Awarded to Josephson

Josephson was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1973 for his work on the Josephson effect.

Discovery of (TMTSF)2PF6 superconductivity

In 1980, Danish researcher Klaus Bechgaard from the University of Copenhagen, along with 3 French team members, discovered that (TMTSF)2PF6 could superconduct at an incredibly cold temperature of 1.2K under high pressure. This discovery showcased the potential of 'designer' molecules that could be engineered to exhibit specific properties.

Completion of the first superconducting accelerator ring at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

In March 1983, the first superconducting accelerator ring was finished at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. It consisted of 774 6m long dipole magnets and 210 quadrupole magnets, showcasing significant progress in superconducting technology.

Discovery of High-Temperature Superconductor

In April 1986, Müller and Bednorz synthesized a lanthanum, barium, copper, and oxygen compound that exhibited unique behavior, leading to the discovery of the first superconducting copper-oxides. This groundbreaking discovery was published in Zeitschrift für Physik Condensed Matter.

Discovery of YBCO Superconductor

In January of 1987, a research team at the University of Alabama-Huntsville substituted yttrium for lanthanum in the Müller and Bednorz molecule, achieving a superconducting material with a transition temperature of 92 K, known today as YBCO.

Formation of Illinois Superconductor (ISCO International)

Illinois Superconductor, later known as ISCO International, was established in 1989 as the first company to commercialize high-temperature superconductors, marking a significant milestone in the field.

Fabrication of the largest superconducting magnet for the DELPHI project at CERN

In 1992, the largest superconducting magnet for the DELPHI project at CERN was fabricated, measuring 7.4 meters in length, 6.2 meters in diameter, and weighing 84 tonnes. It survived a 1600 km journey to CERN through road, ship, and barge.

Discovery of High-Temperature Superconductivity

Superconductivity above 130 K was discovered in a material containing HgBa2Ca2Cu3O1+x and HgBa2CaCu2O6+x. This marked a significant advancement in the field of superconductivity.

Record High Superconducting Transition Temperature Achieved

In 1994, a new record for superconducting transition temperature (Tc) was set at 164K under 30GPa of pressure for the material HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+x.

Discovery of Gold and Indium Alloy Superconductor

In 1997, researchers discovered that an alloy of gold and indium exhibited superconducting and natural magnet properties at a temperature very close to absolute zero, defying conventional beliefs.

Discovery of the first high-temperature superconductor without copper

In the year 2000, the first high-temperature superconductor that does not contain any copper was discovered. This marked a significant advancement in the field of superconductivity.

Nobel Prize in Physics awarded to Abrikosov, Ginzburg, and Leggett

In 2003, Alexei A. Abrikosov, Vitaly L. Ginzburg, and Anthony J. Leggett were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their groundbreaking contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids.

Discovery of High-Temperature Superconductors

In 2005, Superconductors.ORG found that increasing the weight ratios of alternating planes within layered perovskites can significantly increase the transition temperature (Tc) of superconductors. Subsequent discoveries using high dielectric constant alloys led to the identification of over 140 new high-temperature superconductors, potentially breaking world records.

Discovery of Iron-Based High-Temperature Superconductors

In February 2008, Hideo Hosono and colleagues discovered lanthanum oxygen fluorine iron arsenide (LaO1−xFxFeAs), an oxypnictide superconductor with a critical temperature below 26 K. Subsequent research led to the identification of samarium-doped variants with superconducting properties up to 55 K.

Publication of the book '100 Years of Superconductivity'

The book '100 Years of Superconductivity', edited by Horst Rogalla and Peter Kes, was presented to attendees of EUCAS-ISEC-ICMC 2011. It contains detailed articles covering the history of superconductivity, including the Leiden discoveries.

Highest Critical Temperature for Conventional Superconductor

As of 2015, the highest critical temperature found for a conventional superconductor is 203 K for H2S, achieved under high pressures of approximately 90 gigapascals.

Discovery of Superconductivity in Bilayer Graphene

In 2018, a research team from the Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, found superconductivity in bilayer graphene twisted at an angle of approximately 1.1 degrees, creating 'skyrmions' between the layers.

Global Room-Temperature Superconductivity in Graphite

On December 31, 2023, a study titled 'Global Room-Temperature Superconductivity in Graphite' was published, demonstrating superconductivity at room temperature and ambient pressure in Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite with dense arrays of nearly parallel line defects.

End of the Timeline
Superconductivity

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