Age of Enlightenment

In 1543, Copernicus published his cosmological system which placed the sun at the center of the cosmos, replacing the earth. This shift mirrors the Enlightenment's focus on humanity replacing God at the center of consciousness.

René Descartes, a key figure in Enlightenment philosophy, was born. He developed a rationalist system of philosophy and laid the foundation for Enlightenment thought by establishing sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation.

Galileo publishes Sidereus Nuncius, describing his discovery of four moons orbiting Jupiter, supporting the Copernican heliocentric theory.

Francis Bacon published The New Organon in 1620, which was a significant work that revolutionized the approach to science by emphasizing empirical observation, experimentation, and induction.

Descartes' philosophy of Cogito, ergo sum ('I think, therefore I am') in 1637 marked a shift in epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty, considered by many as the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment.

Descartes' work published in 1641 where he uses radical skeptical doubt to challenge prejudices from learning and sense experience, aiming to establish certain principles for a new knowledge system.

René Descartes, a prominent figure in Enlightenment philosophy, passed away. His method of doubt and rationalist philosophy significantly influenced Enlightenment thought.

Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan in 1651, defending the absolute power of the political sovereign. Despite being opposed to the revolutionaries and reformers in England, this work is considered a founding work of Enlightenment political theory.

The first scientific and literary journal, the Parisian Journal des sçavans, was established in 1665 during the Enlightenment, marking the beginning of periodical publications in Europe.

Baruch Spinoza published his work 'Ethics' in 1677, presenting a systematic rationalist metaphysics that challenged Cartesian dualism and proposed an ontological monism with only one substance, God or nature, having two attributes.

Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) was one of the first works to express scientific theory for the general public, specifically targeting women with an interest in scientific writing. It inspired similar works and contributed to the popularization of science.

Isaac Newton publishes Principia Mathematica, introducing his laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.

The English Revolution of 1688 laid the basis for modern, republican, constitutional democracies.

John Locke's Two Treatises of Government, published in 1689, introduced the concept of the 'consent of the governed' and challenged the traditional 'divine right of kings' governance paradigm. It had a significant influence on political thought during the Enlightenment.

John Locke's Second Treatise of Government, published in 1690, is considered the classical source of modern liberal political theory. It emphasizes natural freedom and equality of human beings.

John Toland publishes Christianity Not Mysterious, arguing that religious doctrines should be rational and understandable to humans.

Pierre Bayle's 'Historical and Critical Dictionary' is a unique and influential book that challenges religious, metaphysical, and scientific beliefs through scholarly entries on obscure cultural figures. It is known for its intimidating scholarly format and radical ideas.

Isaac Newton's argument in his book Opticks (1704) suggests that the order and beauty in the world point towards the existence of an intelligent supreme being as the cause of this order and beauty.

In his first set of Boyle lectures, Clarke presents the metaphysical argument for God's existence, based on the rationalist principle that everything must have a sufficient reason for its existence. He argues for the existence of a transcendent, necessary being as the cause of natural causes and effects.

The Third Earl of Shaftesbury published the influential work Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times in 1711. In this work, he is considered a founding figure of the empiricist strand and provides a non-egoistic account of moral virtue.

Montesquieu publishes Persian Letters, a satirical critique of French society and Catholic doctrine, reflecting Enlightenment criticism.

In 1733, Alexander Pope published An Essay on Man, which includes the famous couplet 'Know then thyself, presume not God to scan/ The proper study of mankind is man'. This work reflects the intense interest humanity had in itself during the Enlightenment, shifting focus from God to the study of mankind.

Newton's physical system enabled the explanation of the physical domain with precise mathematical formulae, grounding physics in a rationalist metaphysics and providing a rigorous and complete secular system of knowledge.

David Hume's skepticism, as developed in Book One of A Treatise of Human Nature, illustrates the crisis of authority regarding any belief during the Enlightenment period.

Baron de Montesquieu's influential work, The Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748, is considered one of the foundational texts of modern political theory due to its scientific approach to social, legal, and political systems.

The first volume of the French Encyclopédie is published, reflecting Enlightenment optimism towards scientific and human progress.

Voltaire publishes Candide, a satirical novel considered a masterpiece of the 18th century.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes The Social Contract, challenging traditional societal laws and advocating for the general will of the people.

In 1771, philosopher David Hume predicted the eventual separation between Great Britain and the American colonies, stating that the union could not last. His views on American independence influenced the Founding Fathers and continued to shape the political narrative of the United States.

The Continental Congress approves the Declaration of Independence, reflecting Enlightenment ideals of individual rights and consent of the governed.

In 1779, the supposition of natural religion is criticized relentlessly and incisively, reflecting the critical and questioning attitude of the Enlightenment. Samuel Clarke's 'argument a priori' is swiftly refuted in Part Nine of the Dialogues, with a barrage of counterarguments. David Hume focuses on challenging the empirical basis of natural religion in the Enlightenment.

Immanuel Kant published his influential work, the Critique of Pure Reason, in 1781. In this book, Kant revolutionized epistemology by examining the limits of human knowledge and providing a foundation for scientific understanding of nature.

Immanuel Kant, a prominent Enlightenment philosopher, defined 'enlightenment' in his essay 'An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?' as a process of intellectual growth and liberation from self-imposed immaturity. He emphasized the importance of critical thinking and autonomy in this philosophical movement.

The French Revolution begins with the regime's attempt to increase taxes on the privileged classes, leading to a crisis.

The French Revolution of 1789 was a major political and social upheaval in France, which marked the end of the absolute monarchy and the rise of a republic based on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Marquis de Condorcet argues for women's equality and citizenship based on natural rights during the Enlightenment.

Thomas Paine publishes The Rights of Man in support of the French Revolution and republicanism.

Marquis de Condorcet's work, published posthumously in 1795, outlines the Enlightenment view of history as a continuous progress towards perfection.

Spinoza's philosophical reasoning led him to deny the existence of a transcendent supreme being and identify God with nature. His ideas strongly influenced atheism and naturalism in Enlightenment philosophy.

The Enlightenment, which took place in the eighteenth century, is characterized by a focus on reason, science, and individualism.

The Enlightenment, a significant intellectual and cultural movement of the eighteenth century, emphasized reason, rationality, and progress.